This Native American Trail Led To War

When Christopher Columbus landed in 1492, Spain, France, and Britain, among other European powers, quickly followed him across the ocean to the Americas and Canada. They came hungry for control and soon after their arrival began colonizing these new territories, which they dubbed "The New World."

These European newcomers became known as foreign invaders. They took over by disrupting local ecosystems, stripping the indigenous people of their spiritual practices, beliefs, natural resources, and trade networks, and driving them from their homes under the heavy burden of prejudice, oppression, and foreign diseases.

This story takes us down one of the trails vital to the ecosystems of North America first mapped out by Native Americans.

What Are Trails?

Trails aren't quite the same as roads, but interestingly, they did influence the directions of many highways, like the K-177 in Kansas. Think of trails as guidelines or rough directions for travelers rather than paved routes. American trails are traced back through archaeological evidence left by ancient natives. They're made up of things like stone piles that aren't meant to be moved, caches of personal items, trees that have had their bark removed, burial sites, paths formed by animal migrations, and petroglyphs-think ancient graffiti. Strung together, these landmarks form a trail.

Our story takes place on one of these trails. A trail that eventually led to clashes, including the famous war led by Oglala chief Red Cloud. It's a look into how these complex routes, initially created by Native Americans, were later taken advantage of by settlers. We'll see how what started as cooperative trading routes between settlers and natives spiraled into violent encounters between colonizers and combatants. It unfolds mainly in the Northwestern plains of North America, an expansive area richly documented for its Native American trail systems, largely thanks to the renowned archaeologist Dr. Carling I. Malouf. His work has brought to light the deep history of these ancient paths.

1980, Dr. Carling explained that mountain valley trails often followed rivers or went over mountains, squeezing through narrow gorges. Differing from the spacious river bottoms and gently rolling hills on the Plains. He mentioned that in old times, these trails usually stuck close to riverbanks and followed the edges of nearby terraces.

To fully appreciate the extent of Native American trails, we'll look at the Pawnee Trail as an example, which showcases the vastness of some of these paths carved through the American landscape. Originating from the historic Pawnee villages in central Nebraska, a state at the heart of the United States, this well-documented route follows the Saline River. It extends southeast towards the Great Bend - home to the Arkansas River in Kansas. This trail is approximately 232.47 miles and is just among many that traverse the Great Plains. The Great Plains cover a vast area stretching from the rugged and chilly mountain ranges of Northern Montana, near the Canadian border, to the warm, subtropical waters of the Gulf of Mexico in Southern Texas.

The Oregon Trail is another historic route stretching 2,170 miles across the Great Plains. This lengthy trail is a vivid reminder of broken promises and shattered treaties that turned order into chaos. As we delve into the case history of The Oregon Trail, we'll uncover the specific agreements and commitments that fell apart along and near this trail, exploring the impacts and legacies that linger to this day.

Power & Change

Pioneers traveled the Oregon Trail mainly in search of new lands. Some legislative acts were direct pre-cursors to the move westward by these European civilians. The Louisiana Purchase of 1803 and the expedition made by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark in 1804. These events catapulted the migrations from east to west.

In 1803, President Thomas Jefferson arranged for Lewis and Clark to lead an expedition, commonly known as the Corps of Discovery. Their main goals? They were tasked with exploring the vast territories gained through the Louisiana Purchase, which added a whopping 827,000 square miles to the U.S., nearly doubling its size. This deal, struck with France, didn't include consultations with the Native American tribes who lived on the land.

As Lewis and Clark ventured through these new lands in 1804, they weren't just mapping out a route to the Pacific Ocean; they were also meeting with local tribes, like the Poncas, Omahas, and Yankton Sioux. For these tribes, forming ties with this new American presence was seen as a strategic move for security and to establish beneficial relationships. This was a period of significant change, and these initial interactions were crucial for both the explorers and the Native American communities they encountered.

Many tribes were receptive, many also weren’t.

During one account On August 30, 1806, as Lewis and Clark's expedition was making its way back to the U.S colonies eastward, drifting down the Missouri River, they spotted a group of over a hundred well-armed Native Americans on the riverbank. The explorers were initially hopeful, fingers crossed that they were encountering tribes like the Poncas, Omahas, or Yankton Sioux—groups they had previously established somewhat friendly relations with. These tribes were known to be more receptive to negotiations and less hostile compared to the Brulé. So, when the group turned out to be the Brulé Sioux of Black Buffalo’s band, the air of hope quickly fizzled out. The Brulé had a reputation that made the explorers wary, as past encounters had been tense and their relations strained due to aggressive negotiations and occasional threats from both sides.

Black Buffalo, a commanding figure among the Brulé Sioux, had previously demonstrated both diplomatic skill and a fierce protectiveness of his tribe's interests, particularly in controlling access to the Missouri River. This control often led to demands for tolls or gifts from passing traders, placing him at odds with Lewis and Clark's mission of exploration and passage. Their past dealings had been a delicate balance of diplomacy and power show, and the explorers were understandably anxious about running into him again, unsure if they could navigate another tense negotiation without conflict.

The initial greeting between the two parties on that day in 1806 was cautious but followed the customary exchange of salutes—a brief moment of respect amidst underlying tensions. However, the atmosphere shifted dramatically when William Clark recognized them as the Brulé. His disappointment was palpable; instead of the potential for peaceful engagement he'd hoped for with friendlier tribes, he now faced a group they'd clashed with before. Clark’s response was to sternly warn them off, even declaring that future traders would be strong enough to handle any hostility from them. The situation was a stark reminder of the complex maze of tribal alliances and animosities that Lewis and Clark had to navigate. Their journey was not just a path through the physical wilderness but a delicacy through a landscape of intertribal politics and shifting power dynamics.

Even among tribes more open to interaction, the arrival of settlers foreshadowed a brewing competition for natural resources, leading to challenges that rippled through native communities. This shifting dynamic underscored the unpredictable and dangerous nature of traveling through the American wilderness or along established trails. It also raises the question of why certain tribes, like the Brule, were less receptive.

The Bison and The Horse

Before Europeans reintroduced the horse to the New World, hunting and gathering were done by foot. The natives would employ several clever tactics to get their food and other vital goods from the land. During Bison hunting, for instance, They'd start fires or make loud noises to spook the bison towards a cliff, using fallen trees and waving robes to guide them. If they needed the bison to really move, they'd set more fires to drive them off the edge. After the bison stampeded over the cliff, the hunters at the bottom would finish off the injured beasts with arrows.

Bison have been roaming North America for a staggeringly long time, with estimates putting their presence anywhere between 800,000 and 200,000 years. These impressive creatures are known for being territorial but not necessarily aggressive. They seem to have a sort of natural intelligence about the environment—like a keen sense tuned to the rhythms of nature that humans just don't have. This deep connection to the land made bison highly revered by Native Americans, who saw them as the guardians of the plains. They were considered almost like natural guides, helping predict incoming storms and shifts in the weather. Because of this sacred role, rituals and prayers were essential for preparing for a bison hunt and giving thanks afterward.Top of Form

So, to the indigenous tribes of the Plains, Bison were essential for their survival. For many, they were the primary source of food, tools, shelter, and spiritual practices.

When the Europeans came into the picture, that sentiment towards these prairie navigators began to wane. Starting in the West of North America and spread throughout the Great Plains. Cultural disagreements based on economic gain by trading were clouding the judgment of some native leaders.

So, why did trade with the Europeans become such a bustling business practice? Because the outsiders brought with them a plethora of new goods. Including sophisticated weaponry, foods like sugar cane, grapes, pears, and onions, and livestock, including sheep and cattle. Perhaps most significantly, horses were reintroduced to the Americas in the late 15th century. When he came to the Americas in 1493, Christopher Columbus brought 25 animals.

By 1750, these animals had scattered across an expanse that came to be known as the Great Plains, covering what are now 10 U.S. states. This expansion reshaped the very fabric of existence for its inhabitants. Almost overnight, the Plains Indians found a formidable ally in the horse. This newfound partnership revolutionized their culture, economy, and warfare, making horses central to society.

Many native tribes forged a profound spiritual connection with horses, a deep bond that was even detailed on the pages of Charles Darwin's Voyage of the Beagle, published in 1839. In one poignant account, Darwin recounts the tale of a Native American and his son fleeing from pursuing soldiers, all mounted on horseback. While the soldiers struggled to keep pace, the native effortlessly left them in his wake by melding with his mount. With one leg splayed across the horse's back and the other hanging limply at its side, he whispered to the animal, which responded with unwavering speed and grace. The horse was without stirrups or reins.

Tribes were more divided than they were before closely interacting with the settlers. Many began adapting to the change, evident in the bustling fur trade. Still, others regarded their arrival and disregarding their social and geographic norms as an invasion, taking steps of protest.

Fur Trade

Before the arrival of the europeans, we know that certain wild animals were subject to Indian exploitation for intertribal trade. But The Fur Trade was a very profitable business beginning in North America during the 16th century and formally ending in the 19th century. Fur and pelts were traded at high frequencies to europeans by Native Americans in exchange for Old World goods.

At the time, many Native American tribes like the Ojibwe and Dakota jumped at the chance to trade furs for the economic perks, others weren't so keen or completely steered clear of it. For instance, the Nez Perce were pretty wary about diving in deep. They really cherished their traditional ways and worried that the demands of the fur trade might mess with their natural resources. Then you have the Navajo and Pueblo tribes, who kept their distance, preferring to stick to their farming and livestock rather than mingle with European influences that might disrupt their culture and bring diseases and conflicts into their communities.

I mentioned earlier were The Brulé Sioux, a branch of the larger Teton Sioux. They had a pretty mixed relationship with the fur trade. They recognized the perks, like getting their hands on European metal goods which could really boost their prestige. But, they were also very aware of the downsides—like how overhunting could throw off the balance of their ecosystem and how the influx of European traders and settlers could lead to fights over land and unwanted changes in their culture. Leaders like Spotted Tail led the Brulé through these tricky waters, carefully negotiating and forming alliances to strike a balance between gaining from the trade and protecting their traditional lifestyle.

When it came to the fur trade, tribes like the Brulé weren’t just going along for the ride; they were actively making strategic choices. They weren’t fully against trading, but they weren’t throwing all caution to the wind either. They were playing a smart game—grabbing the benefits of trading with Europeans while being super cautious about the long-term effects on their culture and environment. This nuanced engagement shows just how complex Native American involvement in the fur trade was, always weighing the potential gains against the risks.

These trades commenced, mostly, on native american trails. Tribes that partook in the trades knew everything about them but so did those who protested against European expansion.

The Oregon Trail

Back to the Oregon Trail – a key route through diverse terrains, a crucial course for westward expansion in the mid-19th century. Early pioneers, often guided by the wisdom and direct assistance of Native Americans, built on this route, embodying the classic American frontier ethos as they ventured across expansive grasslands and towering mountains.

As settlers journeyed along the Oregon Trail, they retraced the steps of Native Americans and earlier explorers, overcoming vast distances and numerous challenges. Driven by dreams of adventure and opportunity, they delved into the wild, propelled by the promise of manifest destiny.

In the early 1830s, the trail's traffic increased when wagons rolled northwest, initially led by fur traders and explorers followed by missionaries aimed at converting nomadic tribes to Christianity. This 2,000-mile, 4-5-week journey would be officially named the Oregon Trail. Established in 1834, Fort Laramie began as a fur trading post and was a vital resting point for the many people who embarked on the journey.

By 1848, the atmosphere was charged with tensions between European settlers and Native groups. Thomas Harvey, U.S. Superintendent of Indian Affairs, organized a conference to negotiate passage rights through Native lands to quell the growing unrest and foster peace. One tragic event directly played into Harvey's decision.

The Whitman Massacre, occurring on November 29, 1847, became a critical event, symbolizing the violent clash of cultures along the Oregon Trail. It began when eleven-year-old Mary Anne Bridger witnessed Cayuse warriors brutally killing Marcus Whitman and his wife, Narcissa. The massacre resulted in the deaths of fourteen settlers and the capture of fifty-three others, creating an atmosphere of terror and chaos. The Cayuse, plagued by a measles epidemic they believed was brought by Whitman, held him responsible as a te-wat, or doctor, accused of spreading the disease. This violent outburst was fueled by the growing tension between Native Americans and the increasing number of American settlers flooding into the region, exacerbating existing grievances over land and resources.

The context of the Whitman Massacre is rooted in the broader dynamics of the Columbia Plateau's history, where traders, missionaries, and Native Americans interacted amid the backdrop of Manifest Destiny. By the 1830s, the arrival of Protestant missionaries like Marcus and Narcissa Whitman coincided with a surge of American settlers traveling along the Oregon Trail, driven by the promise of fertile land and new opportunities. The Protestant missionaries aimed to convert Native Americans to Christianity and encourage them to adopt farming, contrasting with the Hudson's Bay Company's (HBC) trade-oriented approach. The HBC controlled the region's fur trade and maintained a policy of accommodating Native American customs while promoting agriculture to integrate them into the colonial economy.

The Whitman Massacre significantly impacted U.S. expansionist policies and the mythos of American pioneers. The tragedy underscored the growing conflict between Native Americans and settlers, with the massacre catalyzing further military and political action to secure the region for American interests. The ensuing Cayuse War and the drive for retribution against the Cayuse tribe highlighted the volatility of the frontier and the lengths to which the U.S. government and settlers would go to establish control. The massacre also fueled anti-Catholic sentiment and Protestant narratives of martyrdom and conquest, framing the Whitmans as pioneers who paved the way for American expansion into the Pacific Northwest.

The Security of Fort Kearney

After the Whitman Massacre and a series of attacks on settlers, Fort Kearney was established in 1848. Unlike earlier forts like Fort Laramie, Fort Kearney was run by the U.S. military to keep travelers safe from what they saw as threats from Native American tribes along the Oregon Trail. Located in what's now Nebraska, it became a crucial stop, giving travelers a safe place to rest and stock up on supplies. The fort was built because of growing tensions and incidents like the Whitman Massacre, which showed how dangerous it was for settlers as they moved into Native American territories.

Fort Kearney represented the U.S. government's push to make westward expansion safer and more controlled. As the Oregon Trail became a major route for settlers, it was clear that military protection was needed. Fort Kearney not only provided safety but also served as a base for military operations to deal with Native American resistance. It was a key part of the government's plan to set up a network of military posts to support Manifest Destiny, ensuring settlers could travel safely and reinforcing the government's presence in new territories.

Fort Kearney also played a big role in the lead-up to Red Cloud's War. It became a hot spot for tensions between the U.S. military and the Native American tribes of the Great Plains, who saw the expanding forts and settlers as a threat to their way of life. The construction of Fort Kearney and other outposts along the Bozeman Trail pushed further into Native American lands, causing more conflict and eventually leading to Red Cloud's War in 1866. This war was a direct response to the U.S. government's non-stop westward expansion, symbolized by forts like Kearney that helped settlers move west at the expense of Native American sovereignty.

Even though some conflicts were temporarily eased with gift exchanges, the underlying tensions didn't go away. By the 1850s, the landscape had changed dramatically, with settlers and gold seekers hunting bison in massive numbers, which devastated the ecosystem. This led to even more hostilities between the indigenous people, whose way of life was being destroyed, and the settlers, who were often unaware or didn't care about the consequences of their actions.

The Letdown Of Fort Laramie

The 1851 Fort Laramie Treaty, also known as the Horse Creek Treaty, was a big deal because it created the Great Sioux Reservation. On September 17, 1851, this agreement was signed with the approval of U.S. Congress members and involved thousands of Plains Indians from different tribes. U.S. officials David D. Mitchell and Thomas Fitzpatrick signed the treaty, along with 21 Indian chiefs, including notable leaders like Little Owl of the Arapaho, White Antelope of the Cheyenne, and Conquering Bear of the Sioux-Brule Lakota. The goal was to establish peace between the tribes and the white settlers.

The treaty clearly defined the boundaries of the Reservation along four key rivers: the Missouri, Platte, Powder, and Heart River, covering around 60 million acres. Tribes that followed the treaty and their chosen leaders were promised a yearly stipend of $50,000 for ten years, with the possibility of renewal. This money was meant to help with essentials like food, livestock, and farming tools, aiming to bring stability and self-sufficiency to the indigenous communities. The treaty was significant for the tribes, promising a protected homeland where they could thrive and maintain their way of life. Sadly, just three years after its signing, Conquering Bear, a respected Sioux chief, was killed under violent and deceitful circumstances.

As we move forward in history, the Homestead Act of 1862 had a massive impact on the Sioux Tribes. This act, introduced during a big wave of westward expansion, allowed individuals to claim 160 acres of land if they were the head of a family, at least 21 years old, and a U.S. citizen. While it initially seemed harmless, its effects grew over time. The leftover land after each settler got their 160 acres, known as surplus reservation lands, was sold off to the U.S. government at reduced rates. This dramatically reshaped indigenous territories, escalating tensions between the native peoples and incoming settlers.

The government started selling these surplus lands to homesteaders, leading to what’s known in Indian country as "checkerboarding." This term describes the messy patchwork created by mixing allotted and leftover lands, which disrupted traditional tribal territories and brought significant challenges for governance and resource management. This fragmented land ownership only made the already strained relations between the indigenous peoples and the rapidly expanding American nation even more complicated.